Pasture to Plate: A Reflective Look at U.S Production and Consumption of Dairy

In October 2014, I became a vegetarian. My family was upset, claiming I would not be able to get the requisite calories, protein, and minerals in needed. Eventually they came to grudgingly accept my decision, as I experienced no detrimental health affects. One of the things that made my conversion bearable was my continual consumption of dairy products, cheese in particular. My family has always loved cheese. Despite all our different tastes and preferences, cheese is the one food we can all agree on. My family religiously complies by the FDA’s Recommended Daily Allowances of three servings of dairy a day, and at one point my doctor prescribed I consume five servings of dairy a day. As a vegetarian enthusiastic about cooking, I am able to convince my family to eat vegetarian by incorporating large amounts of cheese into my recipes. In undergrad, I even wrote a research paper on the rise of the grilled cheese sandwich as a comfort food in the United States. 

However, after my semester-long investigation of the United States dairy industry, dairy history, and cultures, I have come to realize that dairy is economically, politically, biologically, and culturally complicated.

As consumers, we carry a plethora of misconceptions about dairy. Interestingly though, compared to other foods, people take dairy personally. Dairy, what types of products and whether it is consumed at all, has become a source of identity for people around the world. In the U.S., the agrarian dream still persists and creates a pastoral image of our dairy sector where small family farms raise herds of cows on lush, green grassy pastures. However, our dairy industry is made up of fewer and lager farmer where cows never see grass or step outside. 

Between 2001 and 2009, the number of milk cow operations declined by 33 percent (USDA NASS, 2010). During that same period, the number of those operations became larger and more concentrated; milk cow operations with 500 or more cows increased by 20 percent and operations with 2,000 or more cows increased by 128 percent. Meanwhile, operations with less than 500 cows decreased by 35 percent (Ibid). These larger dairies account for a larger share of total milk production; in 2009 60 percent of milk production came from farms with 500 or more cows (up from 39 percent in 2001), and 31 percent came from farms with 2,000 or more cows (up from 13 percent in 2001). However, farms with less than 500 cows decreased in their share of total milk production, from 61 percent in 2001 to 41 percent of milk production in 2009 (Ibid). Milk production has also become more concentrated and shifted west. In 2009, the top milk producing states were California, Wisconsin, and New York, and the top-ten milk producing states accounted for nearly 74 percent of the total milk production in the United States (Ibid). 

How milk cows are treated and the face of who works on our dairy farms is also not what the typical consumer imagines. Today the average dairy cow produces six to seven times more milk than they did a century ago. Farmers push cows to produce more and more through constant impregnation from artificial insemination, with an average milk cow producing milk for as much as 305 days of the year. What is most troubling for me as a vegetarian is that after three to four years, when a cow’s milk production begins to slack off, they are culled from the herd for hamburger meat. In fact a large portion of our ground meat comes from culled dairy cows (Kurlansky, 2014). This puts my consumption as a vegetarian into question. While I became a vegetarian for sustainability reasons, the large, confined dairies that produce the majority of our country’s milk and milk products, while benefiting from economies of scale, are not necessarily environmentally or socially sustainable. 

Additionally, the faces on dairy farms are increasingly those of immigrants. Taking Wisconsin as an example, in a survey conducted in 2008 of Wisconsin’s dairy farms, they estimated that 40 percent of all hired labor was immigrants, and as the farm size increased, the proportion of immigrant workers also increased (Harrison et al, 2009). This figure is most likely higher due to absentee temporary workers, employers under-reporting due to the presence of illegal workers, and missing data. Harrison et al point to declining incomes among dairy farmers as the primary cause for farmers resorting to immigrant labor. Between 2012 and 2016, average net returns above all costs for dairy farms in all size categories was negative (Zulauf, 2017, 1). As a result, farmers have sought to increase their incomes by either increasing the size of their herd or milking cows more times per day. Also, on family farms, tighter farm budgets have necessitated family members seek off-farm employment. The higher labor need and the decrease in the available family labor has made cheap, immigrant labor attractive (Harrison et al, 2009).        

I cannot get into the human rights abuses experienced by immigrant farm workers here (which is pervasive throughout our food system). With all the issues mentioned above coming to the attention of some more-educated consumers, organic dairy has started to look like an ideal alternative. The number of organic dairy farms increased on average 25 percent annual between 2000 and 2005 (McBride & Greene, 2009, iii), and in 2016, U.S. organic dairy sales amounted to $6 billion (Whoriskey, 2017). In general, organic farms tend to be, on average, smaller than conventional farms, concentrated in the northeast, have higher costs per a cow and less milk production per cow, received higher prices per cwt, and are more likely to pasture their cows (McBride & Greene, 2009, iv). That being said, organic dairies are increasingly looking like conventional dairies. Farms are getting bigger, especially in the west and southwest, and cows stay in confinement for longer periods of time. The organic liquid milk market in the U.S. is also in the hands of only a few companies. While these companies still pay organic farmers higher premiums for their milk than conventional farmers, they have started to centralize their processing and switch to sourcing milk from large, conventional-looking organic dairy farms in Texas, New Mexico, and California (Whoriskey, 2017). Thus, even organic dairy is not what consumers think it is.

Aside from all the issues in the dairy industry, biologically should we even be consuming dairy? Genetically, for the most of the world population, the science says no. Lactose is a double molecule made of two smaller sugar molecules, glucose and galactose. In order for these sugar molecules to be absorbed by the small intestines, the chemical bond holding them together must be broken. In order to break that bond, the body requires an enzyme called lactase, a protein that catalyzes chemical reactions. Like all enzymes, there is a stretch of DNA that, when signaled, produces lactase. All our bodies produce lactase as babies, but after we stop consuming breast milk our bodies stop producing the enzyme and, thus, lose the ability to digest lactose (i.e. lactose intolerance). Lactose intolerance is the rule not the exception, yet we incorrectly perceive it as the minority, with high rates of intolerance everywhere in the world with only a few small pockets of exception (Scheindlin, 2007). 

Our ability to digest lactose is so new, in evolutionary terms, and so much in the minority, and yet it is promoted fervently as essential for proper human nutrition by Western medicine and government agricultural departments. The dietary advice promoted by these institutions helps indoctrinate a culture whereby dairy consumption is part of our society’s identity and makes up the fabric of our being. We are what we eat after all. And dairy is everywhere: the national RDA’s recommend three servings of dairy a day, encapsulated in a glass of milk on MyPlate; the industrial food industry exudes dairy, from fast food and processed food products to the strategic place of milk in grocery stores; and who can forget the USDA dairy checkoff  “Got Milk?” ads, with Olympic athletes sporting prominent milk mustaches? More consumers are challenging this culture though. Veganism is on the rise, and nondairy milk alternatives are challenging the liquid milk market, inciting panic in the dairy industry where profits are already nonexistent. Consumers are realizing, for one reason or another, that the claim that dairy is necessary for a healthy diet is not entirely true. The essential vitamins, minerals, and amino acids can be found in other sources in large enough quantities, such as calcium in dark, leafy greens. 

I do not plan on ceasing my consumption of dairy, and this is by no means supposed to be an attack on dairy. In fact, my dairy consumption, which had fallen when beginning grad school, may have increased during this semester’s investigation. However, this study has made me take a more critical look at the amount, source, and types of dairy products I consume as well as made me more critical and reflective of the tradeoffs involved in the production of the foods I consume. 

Harrison, J., Lloyd, S., O’Kane, T. (2009, Feb). Overview of Immigrat Workers on Wisconsin Dairy Farms. Changing Hands: Hired Labor on Wisconsin Dairy Farms. Briefing No. 1.

Kurlansky, M. (2014, Mar 17). Inside the milk machine: How modern dairy works. Modern Farmer. Retrieved from https://modernfarmer.com/2014/03/real-talk-milk/.

McBride, W. D. & Greene, C. (2009 Nov). Characteristics, Costs, and Issues for Organic Dairy Farming.USDA Economic Research Service. Economic Research Report No. 82. 

USDA NASS. (2010, Sept). Overview of the United States Dairy Industry. United Stated Department of Agriculture National Agriculture Statistic Service.

Scheindlin, B. (2007, Spet). Lactose intolerance and evolution: No use crying over undigested milk. Gastronomica. 

Whoriskey, P. (2017, May 1). Why your ‘organic’ milk may not be organic. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/why-your-organic-milk-may-not-be-organic/2017/05/01/708ce5bc-ed76-11e6-9662-6eedf1627882_story.html?utm_term=.252cb8924007.

Zulauf, C. (2017, May 25). Economies of size in producing milk and U.S. dairy policy: A key relationship. Farmdoc Daily(7): 1-4.

Cheese Comrades: Politics, Preservation, and Dairy Products in Russia

There is a cheese black market in Russia. Underground cheese dealers pedal their wares out of hidden backrooms in corner shops or set up clandestine online stores (Sgarro, 2015). Why the need for such drastic measures to obtain cheese? Politics, poverty, and a deep love for dairy. 

Little has been written about Russia’s dairy culture. In the Oxford Encyclopedia of Cheese, neither Russia nor any neighboring Eastern European country is included despite producing and consuming unique cheeses. Internationally, dairy in Russia is discussed in terms of imports, exports, and milk production rather than the products consumed and the role they play in Russian cuisine and culture. To study the role of dairy products in Russia, without going to Russia, sites promoting Russian culture to a wider audience are the main resources. These sites may or may not be supported by the Russian government (the online news site Russian Beyond, which serves as a news site to Russians living abroad and as a promoter of Russian culture to the wider world, is transparent about receiving funding from the Russian government. How much funding and how much autonomy they have is not clear.) However, from these and more reputable sources, I have pieced together a picture of Russia’s dairy culture, a culture based on ingenuity, preservation, and a love for microbes and dairy.

Roughly, Russian dairy products can fall into three categories: fermented drinks, yogurts, and other. The line between fermented drinks and yogurts is not always clear, and others may argue for a greater breakdown of categories. There appears to be a plethora of original dairy products in Russia, some of which are made in similar to identical ways and all of which are produced differently from household to household. Thus, there are too many dairy products to discuss them all here, but I will attempt to give a sense of what the dairy industry looks like and its role in the cuisine in Russia.

The majority of Russian dairy products come in the form of fermented milk drinks. Fermenting milk prolongs its self-life. The lack of refrigeration, the reliance of peasants on family dairy animals, and the deprivation of the Soviet Union necessitated the development of methods of preservation. The basis of most fermented dairy drinks in Russia is baked milk, or toplenoe. The traditional Slavic drink is made through prolonged heating without bringing the milk to a boil. 

Baked milk versus regular milk. Source: Honest Cooking http://honestcooking.com/russian-baked-milk/

Ryazhenkaand varents areboth made by adding sour cream to baked milk. Russians consider both drinks good for your health due to the probiotics, and they are popular with people trying to lose weight (Sorokina, 2018). A fermentation agent, usually sour cream, rye bread, or an acid, is also used to make the fermented milk drink prostokvasha (Ibid). Other fermented milk health drinks include kefir and kumis. Traditionally from the Caucasus but now a part of Russian cuisine, kefir is a fermented milk drink made by adding specific bacteria strains to milk. The drink is served in kindergartens and hospitals, usually with dill and parsley. It is popular with people trying to lose weight, and is used in dishes like okroshka, a chilled soup with a kefir base. Kumis is a traditional fermented mare’s milk drink in Bashkiria, Kalmykia, and among nomadic people. The bittersweet tasting drink is low in alcohol content (~3 percent) and is considered a super food that can improve metabolism and increase energy (ibid).

Kumis, a fermented mare's milk drink, comes from Kazakh culture where the horse is considered a gift from the Gods. Source: INDY Guide https://indy-guide.com/en/articles/what-is-kumis-and-why-we-need-it.

 While there is a never-ending variety of fermented milk drinks in Russia, there are only a few types of yogurts. Bulgarian yogurt is popular in Russia. An unstrained yogurt made from Lactobacillus bulgaricus, a native Bulgarian strain that is one of the most common yogurt cultures around the world, it has a tart flavor and creamy, loose texture. In contrast, Russian yogurt, also an unstrained yogurt, has a tangy and less tart taste and thicker texture (Krieger, 2017). While both yogurts are popular in Russia, coming in cow and goat milk varieties as well as different flavors, matzoon, a Caucasian cousin of yogurt, hold the title of “nectar of longevity.” Popular in Russia’s South, Georgia, and Armenia, it is believed to lower cholesterol levels, aid digestion, reduce blood pressure, and prevent early aging (Sorokina, 2018). 

The other main dairy products are sour cream (Smetana) and tvorog. Sour cream is a key ingredient in Russian cuisine, and it is one of the most popular condiments, served with and in practically everything. Tvorog is similar to cottage cheese, farmer cheese, or quark. A thick curd cheese, slightly drier than cottage cheese and with a slightly sweet, fresh taste, tvorog can be eaten with sour cream (of course), milk, or jam for breakfast. It can also be used as a filling in blini (crepe like pancakes) and boiled dumplings (vareniki), or it can be fired into thicker pancakes (cyrniki) with raisins or nuts or used in baked goods (sweet pierogies). It is also a popular food for babies due to its high protein content (Sorokina, 2018).

Cyrniki are thick pancakes made with tvorog. These are often served with sour cream and berries. Source: Gastronomiac https://www.gastronomiac.com/lexique_culinaire/cyrniki/.

Despite the pervasiveness of dairy in the Russian diet and cuisine, in the past decade the Russian dairy industry has struggled to meet demand. Half of Russia’s total milk herd is at household farms, and dairy farming in Russia is the least industrialized sector in the Russian economy. In 2016, Russia had 7.55 million milk cows producing 30 million metric tons of milk, but that number has decreased as commercial dairies increase milk production while “backyard farms” decrease output (Archwamety, n.d.). Part of the problem is the dairy industry is an unattractive profession to Russians. Lack of financing and modernization, volatile milk prices, downward tending margins, long payback period on investments, a history of inconsistent implementation of state dairy programs, increased use of vegetable oil substitutes by processors, dependence on consolidated chains, and declining demographics and lack of skilled workers in rural areas all contribute to the lack of young Russians entering dairy farming (Ibid).   

As a result, Russians relied on imports from the United States and European Union. However, in 2010, after a disagreement over product certification, the U.S. stopped exporting dairy products to Russia. Then in 2014, Russia annexed Crimea, prompting trade sanctions from the U.S., the E.U., and other countries as they boycott Russian products. Russia responded with counter-sanctions that barred a number of countries’ imports into Russia, including dairy products. Once the E.U.’s largest dairy export market, receiving a third of its cheese exports and a quarter of its butterfat shipments, Russian dairy imports plummeted; in 2013, Russia imported 466,000 metric tons of cheese and curd, nearly half its cheese consumption, and in 2014 that had dropped to 349,000 and then 216,000 metric tons in 2015 as the E.U. dried up as a source for cheese (Ibid).

The annexation of Crimea by Russia caused further conflict when they turned their eyes to Ukraine. The Ukraine conflict has still not come to a conclusion. Source: The Liberty Web http://eng.the-liberty.com/2014/5308/

The embargo represented an opportunity for Russian dairy producers, and in 2015 new local brands entered the market. However, these brands proved unsuccessful with consumers for two possible reasons. First, Danone is Russia’s leading producers of traditional dairy products, including tvorog, and of overall dairy products in the country. Danone is, ironically, a France-based company that first entered Russia in 1992 and was the first foreign company to invest in the Russian economy at a time of democratic transition and high volatility. In 2010 Danone acquired Russian dairy giant Unimilk, and in 2016 they were the category leader, holding 25% value share of drinking milk products, 19% value-share in yogurt and sour milk products, and a 21% value-share of other dairy, which includes chilled snacks, condensed milk, cream, fromage frais, and quark (Archwamety, n.d.).

Second, there is a pervasive, and illegal, use of palm oil in dairy products, particularly cheese. Up to 50% of dairy products in Russia have been adulterated with palm oil (Sgarro, 2015). Palm oil cheese is part of a long history of counterfeit foods in Russia. Soviet era shortages resulted in local producers taking advantage of loopholes to political constraints and consumers’ habituation to counterfeit products and repackaged counterfeit products as legitimate. Today, consumers enter grocery stores with a heavy dose of skepticism. Distrustful of products and brands, consumers only buy products if they know where they come from or friends and family have recommended them (Ibid). The use of palm oil is illegal, and if Russian law enforcement detects dairy processors of using palm oil in violation of technical and labeling regulations, the processor is charged a fine. However, these fines are small and typically do not motivate processors to stop the illegal practices (Archwamety, n.d.). Local cheese makers have tried to respond to “fake” cheese; between January and April 2015, production rose 29.5% from the same period in 2014, but milk production decreased 0.5%. However, the devaluation of the ruble from the import ban caused food price inflation, hurting local cheese makers (Sgarro, 2015).   

The sanctions war has resulted in hundreds of tons of smuggled food products, particularly dairy products, being seized and steamrolled or incinerated by Russian authorities. In one raid in 2015, Russian authorities seized 470 tons of cheese (Angerer, 2018). The average Russian consumer has been the hardest hit in the sanction war. Food prices have skyrocketed, and product availability has dried up. However, almost five years into sanctions and farmers are rejoicing. The government began investing more in their agricultural sector, making it the fastest growing sector in the Russian economy. The dairy industry has expanded rapidly, rushing to fill domestic demand for aged cheeses. Then in July 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced that the embargo on food products would continue to the end of 2019. While the ongoing sanctions appear to allow the Russian dairy sector to grow, strengthen, and develop their own brand, how much has this actually benefitted consumers? Russia has a history of unique, healthy dairy products, but these products will never be recognized internationally if Russia stays closed off. Probably more troubling still, Russian consumers will not be able to afford the new dairy products produced from the sanctions war due to inflation. It will be interesting to see what happens to the Russian dairy industry in the next decade. With the dismantling of sanctions, will Russian aged cheeses become internationally recognized? Will renewal of E.U. imports hurt the progress made by Russian dairy farmers? We will have to wait and see.

Russian authorities destroy hundreds of tons of banned Western foods, especially cheese. Source: NY Times https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/07/world/europe/russia-destroys-piles-of-banned-western-food.html.

Want to eat like a Russian? Just add sour cream! You can easily make your own. Technically this is the cheating version, but you are still “souring” cream. Put a cup of heavy cream into a jar (mason jar works best) and add a teaspoon of white vinegar or lemon juice. Shake well. Take the top off the jar and securely place a paper towel or cheesecloth over the top. Let sit for 24 hours. The cream should thicken and have a more sour taste. However, it will not look as thick as the sour cream you buy in the grocery store. Put the top back on the jar and store in the refrigerator. Consume it as a condiment, side dish, or sauce with everything! Soups, dumplings, sandwiches, desserts, etc.

Works Cited

Angerer, C. (2018, Mar 4). Putin’s sanctions war created a Russian cheese industry overnight. NBCNews. Retrieved from https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/putin-s-sanctions-war-created-russian-cheese-industry-overnight-n847101.

Archwamety, R. (n.d.). Global politics, local economy shape Russia’s Dairy trends. Cheese Market News.Retrieved from http://www.cheesemarketnews.com/articlearch/passport/russia.html.

Krieger, E. (2017, Oct. 11). Sorting out the countless yogurt options, from Greek to Bulgarian. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/health/ct-healthy-yogurt-options-20171011-story.html.

Sgarro, V. (2015, Jul 9). Russians sniff out real cheese as imported dairy ban lingers. National Geographic. Retrieved from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2015/07/09/despite-dairy-ban-some-russians-sniff-out-real-gouda-and-gorgonzola/.

Sorokina, A. (2018, May 24). Everything you wanted to know about Russian dairy products. Russia Beyond. Retrieved from https://www.rbth.com/russian-kitchen/328347-russian-dairy-products.

Immortal Milk: From Industrious Herders to Industrial Foods

If you are a typical consumer, you probably have bought processed or pre-prepared foods and noticed in the ingredients list “milk powder,” “powdered milk,” or “dried milk.” While milk powder would appear to be a product of our modern industrial food system, its history goes much further back. In the Near East, archeologists have found petrified chunks of dried buttermilk, or “milk cakes.” They believe ancient Near Easterners made milk cakes by placing churned sour milk in a high place, possibly a rooftop (Valenze, 2011, 30). European travelers during the thirteenth century, described how the nomadic Mongols heavily relied on milk products in their diets and would boil and dry mares milk and store the resulting dried curds in bags for winter consumption. The dried curds could then be mixed in water to make a weak drink (Ibid, 39). Today, the decedents of the Mongols, herders in Mongolia, continue to make similar dried dairy products. Three types of dried cheeses, byaslag, eezgii, and aaruul, are made using yogurt rather than culture and rennet and are either eaten fresh or sliced and dried (Kaplonski, 488). By drying milk and other dairy products, these ancient cultures developed a way of effectively immortalizing milk and her products. For ancient peoples in the Near East, Mongolia, and other nomadic herding populations, being able to extend the life of milk was essential to survival and a healthy diet.

Woman Mongolian Herder. Source: Women's News Network

Although powdered milk (in one form or another) has been around for thousands of years, commercial powdered milk production did not start until the nineteenth century. Some scholars attribute the invention of dried milk to Russian chemist M. Dirchoff in 1832. However, it was not until 1855, when T. S. Grimwade patented a dried milk procedure (Dried milk production, n.d.) that powdered milk entered the English commodity market (Valenze, 187). Powdered milk quickly became a huge market commodity, used in baby food as well as chocolate and other confectionaries.  

Today powdered milk can be made in three ways. The first and most common way is by spray drying. Nonfat skim milk, whole milk, buttermilk, or whey is concentrated to about 50 percent milk solids and then sprayed into a heated chamber where the water almost instantly evaporates, leaving fine particles of powdered milk solids behind. The second method is drum drying, whereby milk is applied as a thin film to the surface of a heated drum, and the dried milk solids are then scraped off. This method creates a cooked, caramelized flavor in the final product. The final and least used method is freeze drying (Dried milk production, n.d.).

The uses for powdered milk have not changed much since the nineteenth century. It is mainly used in infant formula, confectionaries (i.e. chocolates and caramel candy), baked goods, Indian sweets, and wherever liquid milk is not an option (i.e. warehouses, fallout shelters, hiking, etc.) Powdered milk is not only valued for its long shelf life, but also it reduces transport and storage costs as it does not require refrigeration, it takes up less space, and it is lighter than liquid milk (Dried milk production, n.d.). 

However, dried milk has its critics. In addition to the nutrient loss in the drying process, one of the many uses for powdered milk has been in international food aid. After World War II, American, and later European, dairy farmers experienced a milk glut. Overproduction resulted in national governments seeking markets in other countries, specifically developing countries. Under the banner of development aid, the U.S. and other European countries dumped their powdered milk, which is much cheaper to export, onto the world market. Prices plummeted, and developing countries’ dairy sectors were unable to compete with the cheap powdered milk inundating local markets (Valenze, 271). One result of this onslaught of powdered milk was India’s Operation Flood. Initiated by the Government of India in 1970, the program was meant to increase India’s domestic production and consumption of dairy products to better compete with the world market (Ibid, 274-75). The result was the promotion of the cooperative system and a widening of the gap between the poor and middle- upper-classes.

Skimmed Milk Powder. Source: Nairaland Forum 

While powdered milk is an efficient, cost-effective way to store milk for long periods of time, cheese powder is valued for its flavor enhancing powers. Yes, the yellow powder used in your mac and cheese is actually cheese, or at least part of it. Industrial production of spray-dried cheese products started shortly after Kraft’s development of processed cheese in 1916. Processed cheese was praised for its long shelf life, cleanliness, consistency, and digestibility. Cheese powder took all those attributes a step further. Spray drying of cheese began being used extensively during World War II. The U.S. Army developed dehydrated cheese products, including cheese powders and dried grated cheese, as a means for preserving cheese under any circumstance, and on the home front products like packaged macaroni and cheese became staples (Dylan-Robbins & Buchanan, 2013).

The Use of Cheese Powder in New Products. Source: Prepared Foods

In 1951, a Dutch processed food company, Lactosan, began producing what we would recognize as modern cheese powder, and since then an array of cheese products have been developed. However, since the 1960s cheese powders have also been a means of concentrating flavor. Enzyme-modified cheese (EMC) was developed in the 1960s. The flavors are so concentrated, that EMC packs five to 20 times more of a punch than natural cheese (ibid). Throughout the 20^thcentury, powders with a mix of cheese, EMC, whey, and other dairy biproducts have become increasingly common and help drive our processed, convenience food culture. 

With all its uses in industrial, processed foods, I bet you didn’t think you could make your own powdered milk or cheese powder. Guess what, you can! You don’t need a spray dryer or a drum dryer. You just need time. There are two ways you can make your own powdered milk. The first way is by using a dehydrator. Line the trays of a dehydrator with fruit roll and pour one cup of milk in each tray. Place in the dehydrator at 130-135°F, and then wait for at least 12 hours.

The second method involves setting your oven at a very low heat (140-160°F). After cooking the milk in a double boiler until it's creamy (i.e. you have made evaporated milk), pour the milk into a large pan with sides. Set in the low heated oven with the door cracked for approximately 12 hours. You will need to check it to make sure the milk does not burn. You can find much more detailed instructions for making your own powdered milk here. Unfortunately, I am a grad student and do not have twelve hours to spare, so I was not able to try this out myself. If you do though, let me know how it goes!

Powdered milk, and its cousin cheese powder, is the result of the need to extend the shelf life and portability of a highly perishable, nutritious product. However, it has turned into an important part of our industrial food system as a way to manage surpluses and enhance flavor. Thus, despite its long history, powdered milk gets overlooked as just another product of industrialization rather than industriousness.